Glossary

7-TM receptors

short for seven-transmembrane receptors

absolute refractory period

the moments following the beginning of an action potential where a second action potential cannot be fired

acetylcholinesterase (AChE) inhibitors

drugs that act to increase levels of acetylcholine

ACTH

short for adrenocorticotropic hormone

Action potential

The electrical output of many neurons is an all-or-nothing response called an action potential.

action potential

The main way for neurons to send signals depends on a temporary change in this voltage; this signal is called an action potential

action potential threshold

the value that membrane potential needs to reach to initiate action potential

active site

The specific series of amino acid residues on the extracellular surface of a receptor where neurotransmitter molecules bind

active zone

A subarea in the axon terminal containing a small patch of membrane that are important for neurotransmitter release

adenohypophesis

another term for anterior pituitary

Adenosine

acts as a signaling molecule in the body that is involved in inflammation, the immune response, and modulation of heart rate; one of four main building block of DNA

adenylate cyclase (AC)

an enzyme that creates a second messenger, a molecule called cyclic AMP

ADH

short for antidiuretic hormone

adrenal cortices

a pair of organs that sit on the anterior surface of the kidneys

adrenocorticotropic hormone

released by the anterior pituitary and triggers production of cortisol

affective neuroscience

field studying neural mechanisms that underlie emotion

afferent signal

Information that arrives into the CNS.

Agonists

chemical substances that can activate receptors

allodynia

a dysregulation in somatosensory systems that cause people to experience pain even in the absence of injurious stimuli

allosteric modulators

substances that bind to the allosteric site

allosteric site

found on extracellular side of the receptor and consists of a special three-dimensional arrangement of amino acids

alogia

negative symptom of schizophrenia; a decrease in the use of language

Alzheimer’s disease (AD)

an irreversible, slowly progressing neurodegenerative condition that leads to deficits in thinking, behavior, and memory loss

AMPA

glutamate receptors that we generally imagine as contributing to excitation

amygdala

brain structure contributing heavily to processing valence of emotional experiences

amyloid cascade hypothesis

suggests that the main driving factor of Alzheimer's is the deposition of Aβ in the brain, and this in turn leads to neurodegeneration via cell death, abnormal protein buildup, and neuroinflammation

amyloid-precursor protein (APP)

an integral membrane protein expressed by neurons

amyloidbeta plaques (Aβ)

plaques that can cause neuronal death and lead to the cognitive deficits observed in Alzheimer's

anabolism

the buildup of larger molecules through biochemical reactions

anhedonia

a loss of a sensation of pleasure and the inability to expect upcoming pleasure

anisotropic diffusion

The difference in molecular motion

antagonists

the substances that prevent agonists from acting

anterior

another word to describe rostral

anterior cerebral arteries

provide blood to dorsomedial cortical structures and deep brain structures

anterior pituitary

one of two halves of the Pituitary gland capable of both synthesizing and secreting a variety of neurohormones

anterograde amnesia

inability to create new discrete memories

anterograde trace

stains cells from the soma to the axon terminal

antibodies

proteins that function in the immune response

antidiuretic hormone

another term for Vasopressin

antigens

targets antibodies bind to

antihistamine

histamine antagonist to decrease the severity of allergen exposure

antiporters

membrane proteins that transport molecules in opposite directions

Apolipoprotein epsilon4 (ApoE4)

greatest genetic risk factor to Alzheimer's disease

Arachnoid mater

middle layer of the meninges that allows for CSF to drain into sinuses

ascending reticular activating system (ARAS)

receives inputs from all the sensory systems before sending wide projections all across the cortex

associative memory

the types of information that we learn through traditional Pavlovian conditioning

astrocyte

A glial cell that makes up the Blood-brain barrier along with endothelial cells

Attachment

the long-term accompanied by feelings of comfort and emotional stability

Attraction

characterized by high energy investment and preoccupation towards a small number of people

autobiographical memory

another term for episodic memory

autoreceptors

Presynaptically-expressed receptors that respond to the same neurotransmitter that is released

aversion

the opposite reaction to reward

avolition

a decrease in goal-directed activity

AVP

short for arginine vasopressin

axon

main output extension of the neuron

axon hillock

a patch of axonal membrane with very unique characteristics

axon terminal

Small swelling at the end of each branch of the axon

back-of-the-envelope equation

an equation to quickly calculate the equilibrium potential

basal ganglia

used for such behaviors as motor and habit learning, emotional processing, and action selection

beta

between 13 and 30 Hz

beta-amyloid

a protein that exists in the healthy brain

bioelectricity

the idea that endogenous electrical activity is important for muscle control, and by extension, the activity of the whole organism.

blood oxygenation level-dependent signal

change in blood flow from blood vessels dilating in the brain

blood-brain barrier

an anatomical adaptation that selectively transports substances necessary for normal biological function, while simultaneously excluding potentially harmful invaders from the brain

BOLD signal

short for blood oxygenation level-dependent signal

Borderline Personality Disorder (BPD)

an emotional dysregulation disorder characterized by disproportionately intense emotional reactivity to environmental triggers

Brain Disease Model of Addiction

the principle that repeated drug use leads to biological changes in the brain that resemble aberrant learning

Caffeine

adenosine receptor antagonist

calcium / calmodulin-dependent protein kinase II (CaMKII)

activated by Ca2+ ions and it's main molecular action is to phosphorylate proteins

cAMP response element-binding protein (CREB)

an intracellular protein that regulates the expression of genes

cannabinoid receptors

inhibitory Gi/o coupled receptors that respond to the presence of eCBs

cannabinoid receptors (CB receptors)

receptors that our body uses endogenously

Cannabis

a drug that is derived from the flowering buds or other parts of the Cannabis sativa plant

Case study

A highly detailed description of a single patient and their condition.

cataplexy

sudden weakening of muscle tone that accompanies a sleep attack

catatonia

motor difficulty associated with schizophrenia where someone can hold their body in a highly unusual position for a prolonged period of time

caudal

parts of the brain towards the back

Causality

A change in the independent variable causes a change in the dependent variable.

CB1

the first type of cannabinoid receptor. exerts the majority of the psychoactive effect

CB2

second type of cannabinoid receptor. works through the immune system

cell body

Receives information from dendrites of a neuron

cell membrane

consists of a sheet of several individual molecules called phospholipids, which consist of two hydrophobic (water-fearing) tails and a hydrophilic (water-loving) end

central canal

a narrow space that runs all the way through the length of the spinal cord along the midline

central nervous system (CNS)

The brain and spinal cord.

central sleep apnea

mediated by some biological change in the brain that results in a decrease in involuntary breathing patterns at night, possibly due to some damage in the respiratory centers of the brain

central sulcus

a large fissure that starts at the dorsal part of the brain at about the halfway point on the anterior-posterior axis

cerebellum

best known as a structure that enables motor control functions, such as balance, coordination, posture, and learning physical actions

cerebral cortex

here, the brain processes behaviors such as attention, memory, and language.

cerebrospinal fluid

the liquid that fills the ventricles

channelrhodopsin

light sensitive-ion channel proteins

chemical gradient

the natural process by which a high concentration of a substance, given enough time, will eventually diffuse to a lower concentration and settle evenly over the space.

choline acetyltransferase (ChAT)

a biochemical marker for neurons that produce acetylcholine

cholinergic hypothesis

suggests that the loss of cholinergic neurons and the loss of acetylcholine signaling is the main pathological driver of Alzheimer's Disease

choroid plexus

the network of blood vessels and cells that form a boundary between the blood and the CSF

ChR2

channelrhodopsin

chronic-restraint stress

method used to induce physiological responses in an animal by restricting its free movement

chronobiologists

scientists who study day-night dependent periodic phenomena in living beings

circadian rhythm

Any behavioral or physiological measure that intrinsically cycles on a 24-hour pattern

circle of Willis

a loop-like circular blood vessel

Clarity

A method to render an entire brain transparent, which helps us to map out the nature of the connections that span the nervous system.

Cognition

the act of generating knowledge through a combination of senses, memories, and thoughts

coincidence detector

detecting the occurrence of separate input signals

competitive antagonists

substances that bind to the orthosteric site

computational neuroscience

the use of mathematical modeling to describe or predict some aspect of the nervous system.

concept cells

a series of cortical neurons in the temporal lobe that increase their firing exclusively in response to highly-specific stimuli

concussion

mild form of a traumatic brain injury

conditional tolerance

a form of tolerance that is dependent on Pavolvian cues

conditioned place preference (CPP)

experimental test that works on the principle that animals learn to associate certain environments with positive feelings, and will prefer to spend significantly more time in those environments.

conditioned response

response to the conditioned stimulus; usually the same as the unconditioned response

conditioned stimulus

a previously neutral stimulus that now leads to a conditioned response

conduction velocity

the speed at which an action potential travels down the length of the axon

confabulation

the fabrication of false memories ranging from subtle to wildly fantastical

Confounding Variables

Extraneous variables.

connexins

transmembrane proteins that make up the hemichannel

connexon

a specialized physical channel between two connected cells that allows for the passage of cytoplasm. also called hemichannel

consolidation

process that enables more permanent memory storing

continuous positive airway pressure device

air pumps that connect to a mask that is worn over the nose and mouth used to treat sleep apnea

Contralateral

Signaling between the brain and the rest of the body: signaling pathways from the left brain crosses over to communicate with the right half of the body, and vice versa.

contrecoup

an injury where the brain recoils backwards and hits the interior surface of the skull opposite of the cause of the insult

Control Group

A group that is as similar as possible in every way except for the manipulation of the independent variable.

coronal

A slicing projection of the brain slicing from anterior to posterior

corpus callosum

the main white matter tract that allows for the passage of information between the two hemispheres

Corsi block tapping test

a common test of working memory

cortex

the bumpy outer surface that is made up of raised ridges and grooved indentations

corticosterone

the rodent analog of cortisol

corticotropin releasing hormone (CRH)

drives the bodies response to stress

cortisol

a glucocorticoid hormone best known for its initiation of the stress response

coup

an injury where the brain hits the inside of the skull closest to the external force

cranial nerves

12 pairs of nerves that exit from the brain and controls motor functions, sensory functions, or both

CRISPR-Cas9

allows for targeted editing of the genome

cross-section

another name for transverse slices of the spinal cord

cryostat

a device that slices the brain into sections as thin as 10 microns

CT scan

a three-dimensional X-ray that revolves around the person as they move through the scanner

cued-recall

in the vocabulary recall test, a subject must recall as many words from a list as possible after given the categories of the words

cyclic AMP (cAMP)

a messenger that, when levels are elevated, activates an enzyme called protein kinase A

cytochrome P450s (CYP)

a class of enzymes in the liver and the small intestines that metabolize a wide variety of substances that enter the body

declarative memories

the pieces of information that can be consciously declared or stated explicitly

declarative memory

pieces of information about facts

decorticate preparation

procedure where the cortex is surgically separated from the rest of the nervous system

deep brain stimulation

a non-drug approach to Parkinson's disease treatment where a stimulating device is implanted into the subthalamic nucleus of the brain

deep sleep

a person’s physiological activity drops to its lowest point of the night: heart rate, respiration, blood pressure, and metabolism all reach minimum

delta-9-tetrohydrocannabinol

the main psychoactive ingredient in cannabis

delusions

untrue beliefs that cannot be changed despite overwhelming evidence

dendrites

the branch-like extensions that protrude from the cell body

dentate gyrus

contains the perforant pathways on its granule cells

Dependent Variable

The factor that is influenced.

depolarization

when membrane potential goes from negative to a more positive potential

diabetes insipidus

a fluid dysregulation disorder

Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders

the handbook created by the American Psychiatric Association used by health care professionals in the United States and much of the world as the authoritative guide to the diagnosis of mental disorders

diffusion tensor imaging (DTI)

quantifies white matter by using MRI technology to detect and quantify the movement of water molecules, which moves differently in gray matter than white matter

digit span test

a common test of working memory

dimer

a pair of molecules

dirty drugs

drugs with many sites of action

dispositional tolerance

another term for metabolic tolerance

distal

something that is farther away from the CNS

distress

the inability to cope with rising demands, leading to increased anxiety and other maladaptive responses

Distributive processing theory

Suggests that behavioral functions require activation of cells across several different areas of the brain.

dopamine beta-hydroxylase

an enzyme that synthesizes norepinephrine from a molecule of dopamine

dopamine hypothesis

suggestion that abnormal dopamine signaling may be an underlying root cause of schizophrenia

dorsal

Brain structures that are above, or closer to the top of the head

dorsal root ganglion

a large clump of nervous tissue containing most sensory neurons

dose-response curve

a graph that plots the activation of a receptor on the y-axis, and increasing dosage of a drug on the x-axis

DREADD

designer receptor exclusively activated by designer drugs

drug dependence

having the urge to take the drug when someone is in withdraw

DSM-5

The version of the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders that is currently being used

Dura mater

thick, fibrous material physically attached to the inside of the skull

dynamic equilibrium

two forces acting on an ion oppose one another perfectly

eCBs

short for endocannabinoids

efferent signal

Information leaving the CNS.

Ekman 60 faces (EK-60F) test

neuropsychological tool assessing emotion recognition from facial expressions

electrical gradient

the electrical forces acting on charged molecules, “pulling” opposite charges together while also “pushing” like charges away from one another

electroactive

sensitive to electrical charge

electroencephalogram (EEG)

a method by which we can observe electrical activity of the brain

electroencephalography (EEG)

a common diagnostic technique that separates NREM sleep into three phases: NREM1, NREM2, and NREM3

Electron microscope

A type of microscope that uses electrons to produce images.

electron microscopes

uses an electron emission device in conjunction with high speed detectors to visualize structures that are on the order of nanometers

electron microscopy

a technique using a beam of electrons aimed at a sample in a vacuum, and the reflection of those electrons can be collected and detected with a computer

emergence

The idea that the whole is greater than the sum of its parts.

encephalitis lethargica

"sleeping sickness," with symptoms like a lack of energy, extreme muscle weakness, and loss of all desires

Encoding

the ability for brain circuits to store some piece of information

endocannabinoid-mediated LTD

mechanism of plasticity where cannabinoid receptors inhibit cAMP signaling, decreasing release probability

endocannabinoids

substances our bodies naturally produce that activate cannabinoid receptors

endocannabinoids (eCBs)

signaling molecules which are chemically similar to the primary psychoactive ingredient of Cannabis

endogenous

originating from within the body

endoplasmic reticulum

the folded membranous organelle that surrounds the nucleus

engram

the specific circuit of neurons that represent a memory

enteral

absorbed through the gastrointestinal tract

entorhinal cortex

makes up the inputs to the hippocampus

entrainable

ability to change and fit the surroundings

enzyme phospholipase C (PLC)

a hydrolytic enzyme that breaks phospholipid membrane molecule phosphatidylinositol 4,5-bisphosphate (PIP2) into two molecules: inositol triphosphate (IP3) and diacylglycerol (DAG)

episodic memory

the recollection of a discrete moment in a person’s life

EPSP

short for excitatory postsynaptic potential

equilibrium potential

the exact membrane voltage value for an ion

estradiol

sex hormone in women

ethanol

easily-obtained substance with a highly intoxicating effect

ethyl alcohol

easily-obtained substance with a highly intoxicating effect

eustress

a small amount of stress that is generally beneficial and performance enhancing

ex vivo

a section of the living organism is taken, such as a slice of brain, a tissue biopsy, or a detached frog leg

excitatory post synaptic potentials

small depolarizations caused by the release of excitatory neurotransmitters

excitatory postsynaptic potential

a depolarization of the membrane of a single neuron

excitotoxicity

excess signaling by glutamate which leads to neuronal death

exogenous

they originate from outside the body

Experimental Design

In an experiment, the scientist uses a stepwise process of developing a research question and hypothesis, then answering that question by performing tests.

explicit memories

another term for declarative memories

Facial Action Coding System (FACS)

a system that uses facial anatomy to differentiate the features that are characteristic of different expressions

false memories

memories that are not true to reality

Familial AD

Alzheimer's disease that's diagnosed when a person is in their 50s or 60s, and is strongly influenced by genetic risk factors

familial love

the protection and preferential support of one’s extended genetic relations

fatal familial insomnia (FFI)

severe insomnia eventually resulting in death, either from the disease or sleep deprivation

FDG

short for fluorodeoxyglucose-F18

fear conditioning

a neutral stimulus is associated with a conditioned response that someone wants to avoid

fear conditioning paradigm

nonhuman model for studying emotional learning

fibers of passage problem

the lack of specificity with some early neural stimulation strategies

field excitatory post-synaptic potential

a temporary depolarization of neurons

fight-or-flight

describes the bodily responses activated when faced with threat, either perceived or real

first-pass metabolism

causes a decrease in difference between the consumed amount of drug and the amount of drug that gets to its target of action

fissure

sometimes referred to as the grooved indentations of the brain

Fixation

a chemical process that is accomplished by exposing the tissue to a chemical like paraformaldehyde

flat affect

symptom of schizophrenia where a patient does not show or express emotion in situations where you would expect to see them

fluorodeoxyglucose-F18

a radioactive analog of glucose, one of the main sources of cellular energy

fluorophore

a light-producing molecule

follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH)

one of two main gonadotropins in humans

Food restriction stress

a rodent model of starvation or dietary malnutrition

foot-shock paradigm

non-human test for emotional memory

forced-swim test

an assessment of depressive behavior, and can also be used to induce stress

free-recall

in the vocabulary recall test, a subject must recall as many words from a list as possible with no cues

full agonist

substance that can activate the receptor to the maximal degree at high concentrations.

functional tolerance

characterized by a decrease in receptor expression after chronic exposure to an agonist

fusiform gyrus

a component of the inferotemporal cortex involved in facial recognition

G protein-coupled receptors

another term for metabotropic receptors

G proteins

proteins which induce changes in neuronal excitability through the action of second messenger signaling molecules

gap junction

the structure that connects neurons electrically

general adaptation syndrome

a collection of responses observed by Hand Selye in chronically ill humans, including gastric ulcers, high blood pressure, and heart attacks

gill-withdrawal reflex

a defensive motor response behavior in Aplysia

glia

non-neuronal cells in the nervous system and brain

glial fibrillary acidic protein

often used as a marker for differentiating astrocytes from other cell populations.

glucocorticoid receptors (GRs)

the receptor in which cortisol binds to; contained in nearly every cell

glutamic acid decarboxylase (GAD)

often used as a biochemical marker for the presence of GABAergic neurons

glycine

small amino acid mostly used by neurons of the spinal cord and brain stem. Glycine is also inhibitory, and acts at glycine receptors, which are ligand-gated chloride channels.

glymphatic system

a cellular rinse that floods the extracellular space with CSF

Goldman-HodgkinKatz equation

combines the Nernst potentials of three relevant ions (Na+, K+, and Cl- ) into a single equation that, when evaluated, gives us the value of the membrane potential

Golgi apparatus

layers of folded plasma membranes that function in transport

Golgi stain

a silver-based stain that filled every single part of the neuron, turning the cells black

Golgi stain.

Neurons that were stained black resulting from a technique using a silver compound that caused the silver to precipitate inside the cell membranes.

gonadotropin-releasing hormone

signals production of the two main gonadotropins in humans: the luteinizing hormone (LH) and the follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH)

gonadotropins

hormones that are important for regulation of puberty, sperm or egg production, the release of sex hormones by the testes or ovaries, and menopause

GPCRs

short for G protein-coupled receptors

graded potentials

sub-threshold changes in membrane voltage

gray matter

parts of the brain that's darker pink / gray color

green fluorescent protein (GFP)

emits green light when activated by photons

growth hormone (GH)

enhances cellular repair, muscle and bone growth, and protein synthesis

growth-hormone-releasing hormone (GHRH)

biochemical signal from the hypothalamus

guanosine diphosphate (GDP)

guanosine triphosphate thats been broken down

guanosine triphosphate (GTP)

chemically similar to ATP and can function as a source of energy

gyri

raised ridges on outer surface of brain

habituation

the suppression of a normal reflex behavior that is dependent on LTD

half-life

the time that it takes for the concentration of the substance to be degraded to one half of what it originally was

hallucinations

perceiving something that is not there; most well-known positive symptom of schizophrenia

hedonia hypothesis

hinges on the assumption that dopamine is the “pleasure neurotransmitter,” and that any substance or behavior that increases dopamine will be desirable.

heliotropism

light-seeking movements from plants

hemichannel

a specialized physical channel between two connected cells that allows for the passage of cytoplasm. also called connexon

hemorrhagic strokes

a burst blood vessel that causes bleeding into the brain

hepatic portal system

a branch of the circulatory system that surrounds the gastrointestinal tract

high frequency stimulation

an intense electrical stimulation where axons are stimulated at 100 Hz for multiple seconds

hippocampus

helps to remember important facts

Histamine

in the body, mediates the sensation of itch, participates in the inflammatory response, and activates the immune system; in the brain, a neurotransmitter that acts as a prowakefulness signal

horizontal

A slicing projection of the brain where cuts are made along the dorsal-ventral direction, from the top of the brain to the bottom

HPA

short for hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal axis

HPG axis

short for hypothalamic-pituitary-gonadal axis

hyperkinesias

an abnormal excess of movements

hyperorality

an inappropriate fixation with using the mouth to interact with surroundings, such as licking or eating nonfoods

hyperphosphorylated tau

the major microtubule-associate protein of mature neurons, and helps to function to maintain cellular morphology. Excess phosphorylation of this protein causes tau to accumulate inside the cell, leading to neuronal dysfunction and cell death

hyperpolarization

when membrane potential changed from positive to a more negative potential

hypnogram

plots time on the x-axis, and stage of sleep on the y-axis

hypophyseal portal system

a series of leaky capillaries densely wrapped around the posterior pituitary

hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal axis

series of organs that result in the stress response

hypothalamic-pituitary-gonadal axis

signaling cascade involving the production of gonadotropins in the Pituitary gland

hypothalamus

serves as a communication route to the body’s endocrine system

hypoxia

low blood levels of oxygen

iatrogenic insomnia

prolonged use of prescription sleep medications causing a person to experience even worse insomnia than before

IEI

interevent interval

implicit memories

another term for procedural memories

in vitro

an experiment performed on cultured cells or isolated molecules of DNA, RNA, or protein

incubation of craving

observation that prolonged abstinence can increase the intensity of drug cravings

Independent Variable

One factor that is being changed.

induction

a process where the movement of magnets can generate electric currents, and conversely, electricity can generate magnetic fields

inferior

describes a structure below

inferotemporal cortex (IT)

one of the signaling pathways important for visual memories

Inhalation

route of administration where substances are breathed in through the nose or mouth

inhibitory post synaptic potentials

small hyperpolarizations caused by the release of inhibitory neurotransmitters

Insufflation

route of administration where the substance is pulverized into a fine powder then inhaled through the nose

insula

the lobe of the cortex buried deep within the lateral fissure

insular cortex

another term for the insula

interevent interval

the time between the pulses

interoception

detecting the internal state of the body and conveying that information for processing

intracranial-self stimulation (ICSS)

the experimental paradigm of the Skinner Box

Intramuscular (IM) injections

drug is delivered into a muscle. slower than IV injections but easier to perform

Intravenous (IV) injection

drug is delivered straight into the bloodstream. fastest route of administration

inverse agonists

causes an opposite response as an agonist

ion channels

provide easy passage for ions without using cellular energy

ionotropic receptors

Ligand-gated ion channels

ipsilateral

describes a part of the body that is on the same side as that half of the nervous system

ischemic strokes

normal blood flow is interrupted, causing cell death by deprivation of brain tissue of oxygen and nutrients

isotropic diffusion

molecules can move any direction with equal probability

James-Lange theory of emotion

says the body’s physiological changes precede the onset of an emotional response

jet lag

psychological symptoms such as difficulty concentrating and mood swings, and physical symptoms like daytime fatigue, insomnia, and gastrointestinal distress; occurs when there is a mismatch between the internal environment and signals from the outside world

K-complexes

large amplitude events that are observed about every minute

K-selected species

species that benefit from a few high-quality offspring rather than a large number of offspring with little investment

Kairomones

q group of chemicals that cause behavioral changes in species

kinship

another term for familial love

Kluver-Bucy syndrome

a unique set of emotional deficits causing a failure to display fear or anger, visual agnosia, psychic blindness, hypersexuality, and hyperorality

knock-in

using gene insertion to put in exogenous genes into an animal

knock-out

creating animal models of a variety of human conditions

Korsakoff’s syndrome

a disorder resulting from a severe deficiency of thiamine

L-DOPA induced dyskinesia (LID)

disorder where hyperkinesias is developed from frequent L-DOPA treatment

lateral

Brain structures that are closer to the sides of the brain

lateral fissure

runs roughly along the anterior to posterior direction, and curves gently dorsally

lateral habenula (LHb)

VTA's antireward pathway

lateral ventricles

two very large paired ventricles, one in each hemisphere

libido

another term for lust

ligand-gated ion channels

another term for ionotropic receptors

ligands

Chemicals that bind to the active site of ionotropic receptors

limbic system

a series of subcortical brain structures that are involved in several different complex behaviors, such as emotions and memory

localization of function

the idea that specific areas of the brain are important for certain functions

Localization Theory

In the mid-1800s, Paul Broca was one of the first to suggest that specific areas of the brain were responsible for carrying out specific functions, which came to be called localization theory.

long-term depression (LTD)

when synaptic strength is decreased and remains weak

long-term potentiation (LTP)

when synaptic strength is increased and remains elevated

longitudinal fissure

divides the two hemispheres, running along the anterior-posterior axis, visible from a dorsal view of the brain

Lust

a very strong desire for sexual gratification

luteinizing hormone (LH)

one of two main gonadotropins in humans

lysergic acid diethylamide (LSD)

a manmade psychedelic

Maintenance insomnia

difficulty with remaining asleep

mammillary bodies

paired structures located at the ventral surface of the brain close to the brain stem

medial

Brain structures that are closer to the center of the brain

medial preoptic area (mPOA)

section of the anterior hypothalamus in the brain strongly influenced by sex hormones

medial temporal lobe (MTL)

patches of neurons where most epilepsy originates

medulla oblongata

a structure that is found at the posterior end of the brain stem

Melatonin

an endogenous hormone that helps the brain regulate the sleep-wake cycle

membrane potential

The difference between the electrical charges inside and outside the cell

memory trace

the specific circuit of neurons that represent a memory

meninges

a tightly-regulated membranous sac where cerebrospinal fluid is found

mesocortical pathway

projection of prefrontal cortex

mesolimbic pathway

consists of dopamine producing neurons that release dopamine onto the cells in the nucleus accumbens

messenger RNA

DNA is transcribed into a string of single-stranded genetic code called messenger RNA

metabolic tolerance

occurs when the body is better at eliminating a drug, so more of the drug is needed to feel the effects

microtome

a device that slices the brain into sections as thin as 10 microns

microtubules

functions like a molecular railway for proteins

middle cerebral arteries

deliver blood to the lateral cortices

milk letdown reflex

a natural process in mammalian motherhood where offspring suckling activates a lactation cycle through oxytocin-dependent circuits

mind-body problem

The discussion that centered around the question if a function as complex as consciousness could result from activity of a clump of cells.

mirror tracing task

The original test of procedural memory

Morris water maze

A test commonly used on rodents to study spatial memory behaviorally in non-human animals

mossy fibers

axons sent to the pyramidal cells of the CA3 region of the hippocampus

Multiple sclerosis

a disease that results from destruction of myelin in the CNS. People with MS might experience muscle weakness, poor balance, muscle spasms, numbness and pain, and weakened neuronal signaling in the brain

muscarinic acetylcholine receptors (mAChRs)

the metabotropic receptors of the nervous system

myelin

layers of fatty lipids

myelin sheath

comprised of several tightly-wrapped layers of cell membrane that encompasses a short section of the axon

NAc

short for nucleus accumbens

NAM

negative allosteric modulator

negative allosteric modulator

allosteric modulators decrease the action of the agonist

negative symptoms

one of two categories of schizophrenia symptoms; describes a deficit of some function

Nernst equation

an equation to predict the direction that ions will move when an ion channel opens given various conditions

Nernst potential

equilibrium potential is also called the Nernst potential to honor Walther Nernst

nerves

Several axons bundled together

neural tube

forms during the third to fourth week of gestation. The cells of the neural tube will eventually become the components of the CNS.

Neurodegenerative

Tnere are some conditions that are neurodegenerative, meaning that their symptoms get progressively worse over time

neurofibrillary tautangles (NFT)

an intracellular pathological marker of Alzheimer's Disease and correlate strongly with cognitive deficits in Alzheimer's Disease

neurofilaments

made up of several different proteins that serve as a cellular “scaffolding” that helps keep the structure of the axon intact

Neurogenesis

The process in which new neuronal growth occurs in the brain.

neurohypophesis

another name for Posterior pituitary gland

neuromuscular junction

the space between a motor neuron and muscle tissue

neuron doctrine

the nervous system is a series of individual units that are separated from one another physically

Neurons

The main active cellular units of the nervous system.

neuropharmacology

the study of drugs that affect the nervous system

Neurotransmitters

A wide variety of chemicals that are responsible for passing information between neurons.

nicotinic acetylcholine receptors (nAChRs)

ionotropic receptors of the nervous system

nitric oxide (NO)

atypical neurotransmitter that contributes to LTD by activating an intracellular receptor called soluble guanylate cyclase

NMDA

similar to the ionotropic AMPA receptors because they are permeable to cations and therefore excitatory, but also contains an Mg2+ ion in the center and is permeable to Ca2+ ions

NMJ

short for neuromuscular junction

nodes of Ranvier

The spaces of exposed axon between each section of myelin

nonhuman model organisms

nonhumann organisms used for studying and testing

nonREM sleep

a phase in sleep where there is no rapid eye movement

nonspecific binding

antibodies binding to the wrong target

NREM1

Earliest stage of of sleep; the deeper into NREM1 sleep a person becomes, more waves with lower and lower frequencies start to emerge

NREM2

NREM2 accounts for 50% of the night's sleep and is characterized by the appearance of K-complexes and sleep spindles

NREM3

phase of sleep where physiological activity drops to its lowest point of the night: heart rate, respiration, blood pressure, and metabolism all reach minimum during NREM3, also called deep sleep

nucleus

houses DNA and other genetic material

nucleus accumbens

processing center for reward and motivation

Obsessive compulsive disorder (OCD)

characterized by the presence of recurring, intrusive thoughts, which can lead to repetitive actions

Obstructive sleep apnea

soft tissue in the back of the throat temporarily collapses, which can decrease or completely block airflow into the lungs

Onset insomnia

difficulty with initially falling asleep

operant conditioning chamber

a special cage equipped with a device which the subject can physically manipulate

opioid epidemic

describes the dramatic increase in the number of opioid related overdose deaths

opioid receptors

inhibitory metabotropic receptors which signal using the Gαi protein

opium

the most well known natural opioid

oral

route of administration by mouth

orthosteric site

another term for the active site

Oxytocin (OT)

plays a significant role in the development and maintenance of prosocial behaviors

paired pulse ratio (PPR)

a value obtained by dividing the amplitude of the second EPSP by the amplitude of the first EPSP

paired-pulse depression (PPD)

plasticity occurring when the paired pulse ratio is less than 1

paired-pulse facilitation (PPF)

plasticity occurring when the paired pulse ratio is greater than 1

PAM

short for positive allosteric modulator

Papez circuit

certain structures in the brain that have a role in emotional behavior

paradoxical sleep

REM sleep is sometimes called paradoxical sleep

parahippocampal place area (PPA)

a component of the inferotemporal cortex contributing to visual memories associated with locations and environmental scenes

parasagittal

takes cuts parallel to the midline, slicing in the medial / lateral plane.

parasympathetic nervous system

sends signals that decrease heart rate

parenteral

route of administration that avoids the digestive tract

partial agonist

substances that can also activate the receptor by binding to the orthosteric site, but are unable to fully activate the receptor, even at increasingly higher doses

partner preference paradigm

an experimental test used to assess vole monogamy

Patient HM

One of the most influential case studies in the neuroscience of memory. HM experienced life-long anterograde amnesia after the removal of the hippocampus in his brain

Patient SM

a notable case study of a person who does not experience the fear response

penetrant

degree to which a particular gene or set of genes will manifest a specific trait or condition

perforant pathway

white matter signaling tract of the hippocampus

perfusion

flushing fixative through arteries

peripheral nervous system (PNS)

All the other nerve cells in the body.

permeability

the ability for an ion to cross the membrane through ion channels

pharmacodynamic tolerance

another term for functional tolerance

pharmacodynamics

The field of study of the effect of drugs on the body

pharmacokinetic tolerance

another term for metabolic tolerance

pharmacokinetics

the study of the effects of the body on drugs

phrenic nerve

An efferent signaling pathway that signals the diaphragm to move up and down

phrenology

the belief that we can predict personality traits based on the shape of a person’s head and the bumps on the outside of the skull

Pia mater

third layer of the meninges, very fragile and is in direct contact with the surface of the brain

pituitary gland

strongly involved in the production and release of neurohormones

Place cells

special population of pyramidal cells of the hippocampus contributing strongly to location and navigational memory

Plasmatoxmosis

disease caused by infection of the parasite Toxoplasma gondii; may cause symptoms characteristic of a generic immune response, such as fatigue, body aches, and fever

Plasticity

the ability to change over time

polysomnogram

measures heart rate, blood pressure and oxygenation level, respiratory depth and pattern, muscle activity, eye movement, and, brain wave activity.

pons

helps us perform involuntary functions like breathing

pore

a “tunnel” that allows molecules and ions to pass across the cell membrane

positive allosteric modulator

allosteric modulators increase the action of the agonist

positive symptoms

one of two categories of schizophrenia symptoms; describes an excess of some function

positron emission tomography (PET)

an application of nuclear medicine best known for its applications in the medical setting for the diagnosis of cancer

posterior

another word for caudal

posterior cerebral arteries

provide blood to the occipital lobe

posterior pituitary gland

one of two lobes in the pituitary gland; produces oxytocin and vasopressin

postsynaptic potentials

small deviations in membrane voltage

prairie voles

rodents that are indigenous to central North America

primary antibody

First antibody in the IHC protocol, binds to the antigen that you are interested in studying

primary auditory cortex

located in the temporal lobe, the primary auditory cortex interprets sound waves

primary motor cortex

contains neurons that control movement of the body

primary somatosensory cortex

responsible for sensory and proprioception information

primary visual cortex

interprets signals converted by the eye into a representation of the visual world

prions

disease-causing agent that is responsible for mad cow disease

procedural memory

the learning of motor skills

prodrugs

drugs that are inactive until they get converted into another substance after enzymatic processing

progesterone

known as the pregnancy hormone in women

proprioception

the ability to identify where parts of your body are located

prosocial behaviors

acts such as trust, compassion, and empathy, all actions that enhance interpersonal relationships

protein kinase A (PKA)

a kinase, an enzyme that is phosphorylates other proteins

proximal

something that is in close proximity to the CNS

psilocybin

an inactive chemical, but once it is exposed to acidic conditions, it becomes psilocin. found in "magic mushrooms"

PSPs

postsynaptic potentials

psychoactive substances

chemicals that can act on the nervous system which can induce a change in behavior or mindstate

Quasiexperimental design

A type of observational study.

radial arm maze

non-human behavioral test used to assess the capacity for learning navigational cues

Raphe nucleus

an area in the brain stem that produces serotonin

rapid eye movement (REM)

usually first occurring around three hours after falling asleep, a person's eyes would dart rapidly and jerkily back and forth

reconsolidated

restoring of a memory after its retrieved

Rectal

route of administration that avoids a majority of the first-pass metabolism

REM sleep

a phase in sleep where there is rapid eye movement

Representative

The distribution of the characteristics in the sample is proportionally similar to the distribution in the total population

rest-and-digest response

A parasympathetic psychological response resulting in lowered heart rate and feeling relaxed, satisfied, and more than a little sluggish

restless legs syndrome (RLS)

frequent unusual sensations in their limbs, such as a tingling or buzzing

reticular theory

the idea that the parts of the nervous system are all one very large, physically connected network

retinohypothalamic tract (RHT)

pathway in which retinal cells project

retrieval

the process in which stored memories are recalled

retrograde amnesia

inability to successfully retrieve memory from one’s past

retrograde trace

stains cells from the axon terminal to the soma

reuptake inhibitor

increases the concentration of neurotransmitters in the synapse

reverberation

the process by which networks of neurons fire repeatedly; thought to be the mechanism that allows for consolidation of memories

reversal potential

equilibrium potential is sometimes referred to as reversal potential

ribosomes

molecular machines that read the mRNA and translate that code into proteins

rig

equipment to measure and manipulate the electrical properties of the nervous system

rostral

parts of the brain that are more forward

routes of administration

ways for drugs to enter the body

Schaffer collaterals

axonal projections from the CA3 region of the hippocampus

second antibody

The second antibody in the IHC protocol, chosen because its target is something that is found on the primary antibody

selective-serotonin reuptake inhibitor (SSRI)

increases synaptic levels of serotonin by preventing reuptake

selectively permeable

some molecules are able to travel across the membrane easily, other molecules have an intermediate ability to cross, and other molecules are completely incapable of passing.

self-administration

an experiment where subject animals receive drugs via infusion when they perform certain actions

self-grooming

a natural and healthy series of stereotyped actions that consists of licking the paws and moving them through the fur of the nose, caudally down the body

Semantic memories

pieces of factual information

Sensitization

a phenomenon opposite to tolerance: instead of a drug effect being lessened after chronic exposure, a sensitized person experiences an increase in drug effect

seven-transmembrane receptors

another term for metabotropic receptors

sexually dimorphic area

the part of the brain that exhibits the biggest morphological difference between males and females (twice as large in men)

sham rage

hyper-aggressive responses to stimuli

silent synapses

synapses that do not change their activity even with glutamate release

Skinner box

another name for a operant conditioning chamber

sleep spindle

a high-frequency burst of rapid neural activity in the low beta range that lasts for about a second

SNAP-25

short for synaptosomal nerve-associated protein 25, a t-SNARE protein that functions during vesicular fusion

SNARE complex

a molecular structure formed when the v-SNAREs and the t-SNAREs interact with one another in the presence of Ca2+

social monogamy

the romantic relationship characterized by a pair of people who share resources, parenting duties, and exhibit preferential mating

soluble guanylate cyclase

an intracellular receptor for nitric oxide

soluble guanylate cyclase (sGC)

an intracellular receptor that changes the activity of the signaling molecule cGMP, which can either lead to enhancement or depression of synaptic strength

soma

another term for a cell body

somnambulism

sleepwalking

spatial memories

memories involved in navigation of our surroundings and the creation of a mental map of our world

Spatial resolution

the ability to differentiate two points in space from each other

Spatial summation

two small EPSPs from two adjacent inputs are triggered

spinal cord

functions to carry information both upwards towards the brain, and downwards towards the body’s other organs and muscles. It can also process sensations and form an appropriate motor response in the absence of brain input

spinal nerve

formed when efferent motor nerves and afferent motor nerves merge

spinal nerves

formed when efferent motor nerves and efferent motor nerves merge

spines

tiny protrusions of cell membrane that stick out from the main dendrite

Sporadic AD

more common form of Alzheimer's disease that's believed to be caused by a combination of old age and environmental factors in addition to genetic risk factors

stereotypy

a series of repetitive, purposeless behaviors

stochastic

describes the randomness of the movement of molecules

subcutaneous (SC) injection

solution is injected into the fat layer underneath the skin

Sublingual

refers to placement of the substance under the tongue

substance use disorder

a disorder affecting a persons ability to control their use of various substances

substantia nigra

area in the midbrain that produces dopamine

sulci

grooved indentations on the surface of the brain

superior

describes a structure on top

suprachiasmatic nucleus (SCN)

clump of cells in the hypothalamus

sympathetic ganglion

nerves form a chain of many clumps of cells that run alongside the spinal cord

sympathetic nervous system

one of two branches of the autonomic nervous system; activates fight-or-flight.

sympathomimetic

substances that activate the sympathetic nervous system

Synapses

The sites of close contact between neurons.

Synaptobrevin

v-SNARE protein thats involved during synaptic release

synaptotagmin

v-SNARE protein thats involved during synaptic release

Syntaxin

t-SNARE protein that functions during vesicular fusion

Temporal resolution

the ability to distinguish two events in time from one another

Temporal summation

multiple EPSPs from the same input occur close together in time

temporally graded

in someone with retrograde amnesia- the farther back you examine, the more complete memories are

terminal bouton

another term for the axon terminal

testosterone

sex hormone in men

tetrodotoxin

a deadly voltage-gated sodium channel inhibitor

thalamus

handles sensory information

THC

shirt for delta-9-tetrohydrocannabinol

thiamine

an essential vitamin that functions in metabolic processes

third ventricle

connected medially to the lateral ventricles, extends to the posterior aspect of the brain

tonic-clonic seizures

the most severe form of seizures that produces a loss of consciousness and convulsions

Topical

similar to transdermal, topical administration involves a substance placed on the skin surface, but does not significantly increase the blood concentration of the drug

tracer

a compound where an atom is substituted with a radioactive isotope

tract tracing methods

staining methods that determine projections of neurons

Transbuccal

refers to drugs that are absorbed by the vasculature in the gums

Transdermal

substance is placed on the skin surface, and over time the chemical diffuses through the skin into the blood vessels

transmembrane potential

The difference between the electrical charges inside and outside the cell

transmembrane proteins

huge protein complexes that span the entirety of the membrane, with an outer side and an inner side

transporters

large membrane-spanning proteins that function to move molecules from the extracellular space back into the presynaptic terminal

transverse

These sections are parallel to the ground if the spinal cord was oriented vertically, like a person standing up

traumatic brain injury (TBI)

injuries sustained by a sudden blow to the head

tripartite synapse

refers to the three components of a synapse: The presynaptic neuron, the postsynaptic neuron, and the astrocyte.

trisynaptic circuit

the three main synaptic connections that make up the hippocampus

trophic factors

helper molecular signals that serve several different functions

trophic hormones

collection of hormones responsible for several functions such as the stress response, growth, sexual development, circadian rhythms, and more

tryptophan hydroxylase

an enzyme that acts as a marker to identify serotonergic neurons

TTX

tetrodotoxin

tuberomammillary nucleus

the major site of neuronal production of the wakefulness signal histamine

two-factor theory of emotion

says people use a combination of the physiological response and a cognitive label to determine the emotion that is most appropriate for a given circumstance

tyrosine hydroxylase (TH)

the main marker that is used for identifying dopamine-producing neurons

Ulcers

injuries to the mucous membranes of the stomach or intestines resulting in abdominal pain, nausea, and changes in appetite

ultrasonic vocalizations

sounds emitted by rodent offspring when they are distressed or hungry

unconditioned response

a naturally happening behavior in response to a stimulus

unconditioned stimulus

stimulus leading to an unconditioned response

universal facial expressions

Paul Ekman's theory that all humans, regardless of culture, would use similar facial expressions to communicate the basic categories of emotions

Urbach-Wiethe disease

condition causing a calcification in the amygdala bilaterally leading to the inability to experience fear

v-ATP-ase

short for vesicular ATP-ase

vagus nerve

innervates multiple bodily organs in the midsection of the body

Vasopressin

contributes to social behaviors, regulates osmolarity, and constricts blood vessels to raise blood pressure

ventral

Brain structures that are below, or closer to the bottom of the head

ventral striatum

another term for nucleus accumbens

ventral tegmental area

area in the midbrain that produces dopamine

ventral tegmental area (VTA)

contains neurons that synthesize the neurotransmitter dopamine

ventricles

large symmetrical “holes” near the medial aspect

vertebral column

series of bones that houses the spinal cord

vesicles

small spherical “packages” made of cell membrane that are coated in special proteins

vesicular acetylcholine transporter (VAChT)

vesicular transporter which move acetylcholine

vesicular ATP-ase

membrane-embedded proteins that utilize the molecular energy contained in ATP to concentrate H+ ions in the intravesicular space

vesicular GABA transporters (VGAT)

vesicular transport which move GABA

vesicular glutamate transporter (vGluT)

vesicular transporter which move glutamate

vesicular glutamate transporters (VGluT)

vesicular transporter which move glutamate

vesicular monoamine transporters (VMATs)

vesicular transporter which move monoamines such as dopamine and serotonin

VGCCs

short for voltage-gated calcium channels

visual agnosia

the inability to recognize faces or objects visually

voltage-gated calcium channels

large protein complexes that normally remain closed, but when the surrounding neuronal membrane becomes depolarized, they physically change conformation and open up, allowing ions to move across the cell membrane.

voltage-gated calcium channels (VGCCs)

channels on the membrane that open during depolarization and allows for pre-synaptic Ca2+ to enter

white matter

brain tissue that's pale and almost white

withdrawal

a set of symptoms that a person experiences when they are abstinent from the substance

working memory

involves processes of storing information temporarily while simultaneously manipulating those pieces of information

zeitgebers

environmental cues, such as increased light exposure when the sun comes up, or social cues, such as increased sensory input from heightened activity of the people around you

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Biological Basis of Behavior Copyright © 2024 by Caroline Cobb (Amey) is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial 4.0 International License, except where otherwise noted.

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